Diet and Lifestyle Changes
Common recommendations include weight loss for overweight patients, elevating the head of the bed, tobacco and alcohol cessation, avoidance of late night meals and bedtime snacks, staying upright during and after meals, and cessation of foods that potentially aggravate reflux symptoms such as coffee, chocolate, carbonated beverages, spicy foods, acidic foods such as citrus and tomatoes, and foods with high fat content [
28]. Supporting data for these recommendations are limited and variable, often involving only small and uncontrolled studies, and rarely as the only intervention, making interpretation and definitive recommendations difficult. However, multiple studies, including several randomized controlled trials, have demonstrated improvement in nocturnal GERD symptoms and nocturnal esophageal acid exposure with head of bed elevation or sleeping on a wedge. Also, compared to lying left-side down, lying right-side down increases nocturnal reflux and reflux after meals, presumably because right-sided recumbency places the EGJ in a dependent position relative to the pool of gastric contents that favors reflux [
29,
30].Thus, patients might be advised to avoid sleeping right side down [
31-
34].
Several studies have evaluated the effects of various foods on LES pressure to try to determine which items might lead to GERD. In laboratory studies, coffee, caffeine, citrus, and spicy food had little to no effect on LES pressure [
35,
36]. However, some of these items might have irritant effects that could evoke GERD symptoms without influencing reflux. Alcohol consumption, tobacco smoking, chocolate, peppermint, and high-fat foods do reduce LES pressure in the laboratory, but few studies document the benefits of avoiding these foods and practices. Smoking cessation was shown to improve GERD symptoms in a large cohort study [
37]. Patients in a smoking cessation study had GERD symptoms measured by validated questionnaire, and those who successfully quit smoking for a year had 44% improvement in GERD symptoms, compared to 18% in those who continued to smoke [
38].
A recent paper, using data collected from the prospective Nurses Health Study, evaluated women without a known history of GERD for the impact of coffee, tea, soda, milk, water and juice on reflux symptoms. Six servings of coffee, tea, and soda were associated with increased reflux symptoms compared to zero servings per day. In contrast, milk and juice were not associated with increased reflux symptoms, despite the acidic nature of some of these beverages [
39]. Substituting water for two servings of coffee, tea and soda was associated with a decrease in GERD symptoms, suggesting that substitution of water for these beverages might be helpful in the management of GERD.
The timing of food intake can also affect GERD symptoms. A short interval (<3 hours) between eating and bedtime or lying supine is associated with increased GERD symptoms and need for medication [
40]. Weight gain has been associated with new onset of GERD symptoms [
41], even in those with a normal BMI at baseline. Obesity increases the risk of GERD, possibly due to a combination of eating a diet high in fat and other foods that promote reflux, increased intra-abdominal pressure that promotes reflux due to increased intra-abdominal fat, and physiologic changes induced by products of visceral fat [
42]. Several studies have examined the role of weight and weight loss on GERD. A population-based study in Norway assessed weight and GERD symptoms at baseline and 10 years later, and identified a dose-dependent improvement in GERD symptoms with weight loss [
43]. Prospective and cohort studies also have shown improvement in GERD with weight loss. One study documented a 40% reduction in frequent GERD symptoms in women who reduced their BMI by 3.5 or more compared with controls [
44]. A meta-analysis suggests that weight loss in overweight patients, avoidance of eating prior to going to sleep, and smoking cessation are effective in relief of GERD symptoms [
45].